INTRODUCTION
ORIENTATION AND CONTEXT
Significance of Text
This passage of Scripture which is not found anywhere else in the Bible describes the process of preparing for spiritual warfare. The apostle Paul whom is widely credited with writing the book of Ephesians presents six pieces of armor and gives each one a spiritual meaning. The reader is instructed to “Take up the whole armor of God” (Eph. 6:13) “so you will be able to withstand on the evil day.”
As a member of God’s kingdom, we understand that we do not fight against a physical enemy. Thus, our armor and weapons of war cannot be physical. “For we wrestle not against flesh and blood, but against principalities, against powers, against the rulers of the darkness of this world, against spiritual wickedness in high places” (v. 12 KJV).
With themes of readiness and preparedness running throughout the passage, Ephesians 6:13-17 is a model analogy for us all. The apostle’s instructions are crucial for each one of us to live victoriously in Christ.
Preparing for war in first century Ephesus meant donning the armor of a Roman soldier. This paper will attempt to understand what the audience would have understood about this armor and apply that knowledge as it pertains to spiritual warfare today.
Historical and Social Setting
The city of Ephesus was a commercial center on the Aegean coast of AsiaMinor. Paul spent a lot of time there and used it for a headquarters for his missionary activity in the region. He may have even spent time in prison there (See 1 Cor. 15:32).
“Since the text does not address problems specific to a single congregation, some scholars think that Ephesians was a circular letter sent to a number of churches, perhaps in Asia Minor. Others, noting the similarities to the letter to the Colossians, believe the original recipients of this text were the churches of Hierapolis and Laodicea” (Coogan p. 2089).
No matter to whom the letter was first sent, Colossians 4:13-16 clearly makes it known that the writer intended for his letters to be shared with other congregations. “And when this letter has been read among you, have it read also in the church of the Laodiceans, and see that you read also the letter from Laodicea” (Col. 4:16 NRSVUE).
Ephesians itself claims it is written by “Paul, an apostle of Christ Jesus by the will of God, to the saints who are in Ephesus and are faithful in Christ Jesus” (Eph. 1:1 NRSVUE). However, “significant differences between Ephesians and the letters ascribed to Paul with certainty (Rom, 1 Cor, 2 Cor, Gal, Phil, 1 Thess, Phelim) raise questions about the identity of its author” (Coogan p. 2089).
Sentence structure and the use of terms not used in these other letters are just an example of some of the reasons Paul’s authorship is questioned. The fact that the writing is similar to Colossians suggests that whoever wrote one wrote the other. “If Paul were the author of both, they likely would have both been written in the late 50s; if Ephesians were written by a later follower of Paul, then he drew upon the established authority of the letter to the Colossians and modeled his composition after it” (Coogan p. 2089). If penned by the author of Colossians, Ephesians may have been written some time after Paul’s death, perhaps in the late sixties, as Coogan states that Colossians may have been written either after Paul died in about 65 a.d. or by Paul while he was in prison in Rome near the end of his life (p. 2105). If not written by Paul himself, then possibly by a “Jewish Christian admirer of Paul who sought to apply Paul’s thought to the situation of the church in the late first century” (Coogan p. 2089).
During this time the church would have been facing unimaginable persecutions. Some scholars think that this was one of the reasons that this letter was written. Another reason for the letter may have been to address the alienation of Jewish followers of Christ, seeing as how the major theme of the book is unity between Jews and Gentiles in the Church. Either way, Paul was a pastor. As such, he was writing to his congregation. “Paul’s letters are pastoral. For the apostle, letter writing was not a perfunctory exercise. Rather, his letters served as a surrogateor substitute for his presence” (Longenecker p. 54).
As a pastor, Paul would clearly have been concerned about his readers in Ephesus and the surrounding regions. While pagan temples and the worship of pagan idols may seem strange to us here in the United States, it was common practice in ancient Ephesus. One of the goddesses worshipped in Ephesus was Artemis.
In the book of Acts we read of Demetrius, a silversmith who thought his business was in jeopardy because of these so-called Christians. One day he gathered his colleagues about him and reminded them that Paul was drawing away customers who said that, “gods made with hands are not gods” (Acts 19:26 NRSVUE).
Demetrius was afraid that his livelihood would be taken away and that, “also that the temple of the great goddess Artemis will be scorned and she will be deprived of her majesty that brought all Asia and the world to worship her” (v. 27).
One can almost hear Demetrius’ fear of ruin in his words. Still, this account in Acts gives a glimpse into the world first century Christians living in Ephesus dealt with on a daily basis.
An article by Victor L. Budha says, “This religious background is relevant and helps in understanding why the themes in the letter to the Ephesians are dominated by the emphasis on spiritual warfare, principalities and powers. In relation to the magical practices, the assumption is that some of these believers might have expressed fear of evil spirits and cosmic powers with the probability of being tempted to syncretise their past magical beliefs and practices with their new-found faith.”
Literary Context
The passage which is the subject of this paper is in the sixth chapter of the book of Ephesians. Ephesians is sandwiched between two of Paul’s other letters, Galatians and Philippians in the New Testament cannon. In Chronological order within the Bible it is placed as the fifth letter.
“Letters, or epistles are the earliest documents in the New Testament and its most common literary form” (Coogan p. 2009).
Many ancient epistles followed a well-known format. Generally, they would begin with who the letter is from, then who it is to. There would be a greeting, and then a thanksgiving section. Next is the body of the letter and a portion for personal information followed by a benediction for the ending. “Ephesians, however, lacks not only an address but also references to specific individuals or problems” (Coogan 2009). Because Ephesians lacks many of the features of Paul’s other letters, Coogan suggests it might be better called a sermon (p. 2089).
Whether a sermon or proper letter, the text about the armor of God is found at the end of the body section, just before the author turns to personal matters. The verses before it give instruction to members of a household on how the writer believes they are to behave. He ends this section with “Finally, be strong in the Lord and in the strength of His power; Put on the whole armor of God, so that you may be able to stand against the wiles of the devil” (vv. 10-11 NRSVUE).
The verses following the section on the armor of God instruct the readers to be vigilant and watch, keeping him in their thoughts and prayers. He says, “Pray also for me, so that when I speak a message may be given to me to make known with boldness the mystery of the Gospel” (v. 19). After this, he informs his readers that he is sending Tychicus to them. Tychicus, according to the author is “a dear brother and a faithful minister in the Lord” who will tell them how the author is doing (v. 21).
PRESENTATION OF TEXT
Scripture Passage
Ephesians 6:13-17 13 Therefore take up the whole armor of God, so that you may be able to withstand on the evil day and, having prevailed against everything, to stand firm. 14 Stand, therefore, and belt your waist with truth and put on the breastplate of righteousness 15 and lace up your sandals in preparation for the gospel of peace. 16 With all of these, take the shield of faith, with which you will be able to quench all the flaming arrows of the evil one. 17 Take the helmet of salvation and the sword of the Spirit, which is the word of God (NRSVUE).
Text Critical Notes
As stated above, the book of Ephesians is an epistle. Epistle, (epistolé) comes from the Greek word “ἐπιστολή” (Strongs 1992). “The term “epistolé” refers to a written communication or letter” (Bible Hub).
In verse 14 our text says to, “belt your waist with truth.” The King James verse says, “having your loins girt about with truth.” Both English interpretations create an image of wrapping truth about the waist, but would it be a belt or a loin cloth?
The original Greek for this phrase is “περιζώννυμι” (Strongs 4024). It is a verb that means “To gird, to gird about, to fasten garments with a belt” (Bible Hub).
Another phrase that is different among translations is found in verse 15. The NRSVUE says, “lace up your sandals in preparation for the gospel of peace”. The KJV says, “feet shod with the preparation of the gospel of peace”. The word shod is past tense. in Greek it is “ὑποδέω” (Strongs 5265). It means to bind under, to put on (Bible Hub).
Preparation, ἑτοιμασίᾳ, (Strongs 2091) A foundation, firm footing; preparation, readiness combined with the gospel, εὐαγγελίου (Strongs 2098) which means a good message and peace, εἰρήνης (Strongs 1515) which emplies prosperity give us a clear picture of putting on shoes gives us a firm foundation to spread peace.
Outline of Passage
I. Proactive Protection (vv. 13-14).
A. Stand prepared with the whole armor
B. Belt of truth and breastplate of righteousness
II. Forward March (v. 15).
A. Lace up Gospel sandals
B. In preparation for spreading the “good news” of peace
III. Safety Sustained (vv. 16-17A).
A. Shield of faith
B. Helmet of salvation
IV. Present Arms (v. 17B).
A. Sword of the Spirit
B. The weapon is the Word of God.
PROACTIVE PROTECTION
The phrase, “Armor of God, recalls the descriptions of Israel’s divine protector” (Coogan p. 2098). This protector was not like any other, as Isaiah 11:4-5 states, “but with righteousness he shall judge for the poor and decide with equity for the oppressed of the earth; he shall strike the earth with the rod of his mouth, and with the breath of his lips he shall kill the wicked. Righteousness shall be the belt around his waist and faithfulness the belt around his loins” (NRSVUE). Earlier in this chapter, Isaiah says, “The spirit of the Lord shall rest on him, the spirit of wisdom and understanding, the spirit of counsel and might, the spirit of knowledge and the fear of the Lord. His delight shall be in the fear of the Lord. He shall not judge by what his eyes see or decide by what his ears hear” (vv. 2-3). This is the Branch that will grow out of the root of Jesse (v. 1).
While the Jews would know this, the picture that surely came to their minds at the mention of armor would have been a Roman soldier’s armor, which would not have been donned without a belt.
Belt, περιζώννυμι” (Strongs 4024), is a verb which means To gird, to gird about, to fasten garments with a belt” (Bible Hub). “In ancient Near Eastern culture, people wore long robes that could hinder movement. To “gird up the loins” meant to tuck the robe into a belt, allowing for greater mobility. This practice was essential for laborers, travelers, and soldiers. Spiritually, it symbolizes preparedness and vigilance, often used metaphorically in Scripture to encourage believers to be ready for spiritual duties or challenges.”
In the book of Exodus God gave special instruction on what Aaron, the priest and his sons were to wear when ministering in the priest’s office. There was a tunic, headband (mitre), coat, bonnet and girdle (KJV). The NRSVUE calls the girdle a sash. Either way, the men could not perform their priestly duties without these garments. “And thou shalt embroider the coat of fine linen, and thou shalt make the mitre of fine linen, and thou shalt make the girdle of needlework. And for Aaron’s sons thou shalt make coats, and thou shalt make for them girdles, and bonnets shalt thou make for them, for glory and for beauty. And thou shalt put them upon Aaron thy brother, and his sons with him; and shalt anoint them, and consecrate them, and sanctify them, that they may minister unto me in the priest’s office” (Exodus 28:39-42 KJV).
Certainly, in Ephesians 6:13-17, Paul was not suggesting to wear actual garments but spiritual garments fit for spiritual warfare.
After the belt of truth, Paul says to “put on the breastplate of righteousness” (v. 14). The breastplate that would have come to the minds of his audience was possibly the lorica squamata, a type of scale armor. Each scale, or squamae was made of iron or brass, and they were very small. They were either wired or laced together in horizontal rows that were laced or sewn to the backing which was fabric. It is not known exactly when the Roman army started using this type of armor, but it is likely that it was used in the first century.
“Legionary soldiers of the 1st and 2nd centuries used a variety of armour types. Some wore mail shirts, while others wore scale armour or lorica segmentata or laminated-strip cuirass. This last type was a complex piece of armour which in certain circumstances provided superior protection to the other types of Roman armour, mail armour (lorica hamata) and scale armour (lorica squamata). The testing of modern replicas has demonstrated that this kind of armour was impenetrable to most direct hits and missile strikes” (Goldsworthy p. 129).
Impenetrability was what the apostle had in mind. Perhaps he was thinking of the prophet Isaiah’s words, “He put on righteousness like a breastplate and a helmet of salvation on his head; he put on garments of vengeance for clothing and wrapped himself in fury as in a mantle” (59:17 NRSVUE).
Before going into battle, a soldier would put on an impenetrable shirt to protect his most vital organs from direct hits. As a Christian, Paul wanted his audience to put on righteousness to protect their spiritual hearts.
But the word righteousness also meant justice. Strongs lexicon (1343) says that the Greek word δικαιοσύνη, transliterated as dikaiosuné, is defined as either righteousness or justice. Its meaning is “(usually if not always in a Jewish atmosphere), justice, justness, righteousness, righteousness of which God is the source or author, but practically: a divine righteousnes” (Bible Hub). The site goes onto say, according to the cultural and historical background “In the Greco-Roman world, righteousness was often associated with fulfilling one’s duties to gods and men, maintaining social harmony, and adhering to laws and customs. In Jewish thought, righteousness was closely linked to covenant faithfulness and obedience to the Law of Moses. The New Testament writers, particularly Paul, redefined righteousness in light of the life, death, and resurrection of Jesus Christ, presenting it as a divine gift rather than a human achievement.”
FORWARD MARCH
“How beautiful upon the mountains are the feet of the messenger who announces peace, who brings good news, who announces salvation, who says to Zion, “Your God reigns.” (Isaiah 52:7 NRSVUE).
When first century Ephesians heard Paul’s admonition to “lace up your sandals in preparation for the gospel of peace” (v. 15), they most likely would have imagined putting on caligae. Caligae is defined by Merriam-WEbster as “a heavy-soled Roman military shoe or sandal worn by all ranks up to and including centurions.” They were openwork boots with hobnailed soles. They were worn by the lower ranks of Roman cavalrymen and foot-soldiers, and possibly by some centurions” (Gilliam pp. 183–91).
Now that the Christian soldier has put on or shod themselves with the firm foundation of good news, he or she can forward march to the battle.
SAFETY SUSTAINED
Paul instructs in verse 16 to “take the shield of faith, with which you will be able to quench all the flaming arrows of the evil one.” Shields were essential for protection in warfare. A shield that the Ephesians would have pictured would have been the scutum, a “10-kilogram (22 lb) large rectangular curved shield made from three sheets of wood glued together and covered with canvas and leather, usually with a spindle shaped boss along the vertical length of the shield” ( (Sabin p. 196). They were approximately 41.5 inches high and 16 inches wide which means they were nearly the length of a person. The boss, or umbo in the center of the scutum meant that it could also be used as a punching weapon whenever hand to hand combat was required. Packed together in formation, soldiers could have overlapped their shields, providing a barrier that would easily quench all the “fiery darts of the wicked” (v. 16 KJV).
Speaking of those fiery darts in the King James version, the NRSVUE calls them “flaming arrows”. Whether they were indeed on fire or not, Goldsworthy says, “Late infantrymen often carried a half-dozen lead-weighted throwing-darts called plumbatae (“from plumbum, meaning lead”), with an effective range of c. 30 m, well beyond that of a javelin. The darts were carried clipped to the back of the shield” (p. 205).
Thus, we understand that the shield of faith that the apostle Paul is talking about was not only for protection but invaluable in the heat of battle for defending oneself from the enemy.
Next up in sustaining safety is the helmet of salvation. A Roman helmet would have been made of iron and would not only cover the head but the face and part of the neck, as well.
The Divine Protector from Isaiah 59:17 put a “helmet of salvation upon his head” (KJV), and in the list of garments that Aaron the priest and his sons wore in the Old Testament there is a headdress. “For Aaron’s sons you shall make tunics and sashes and headdresses; you shall make them for their glorious adornment” (Exodus 28:40 NRSVUE).
In battle a soldier would not leave his head unprotected. Paul calls his headgear a “helmet of Salvation” (v. 17). It is the knowledge of salvation that protects, and salvation itself that sustains the wearer’s safety. “Salvation,” is “deliverance from harm” (Coogan p. 2098).
PRESENT ARMS
Finally there is the last piece of armor, “the sword of the Spirit, which is the word of God” (v. 17B). It is the only offensive weapon in the entire list of spiritual armor. Its definition is simply “the proclamation of the gospel” (Coogan p. 2098).
A gladius is a general term for a Roman sword. It was approximately 24 inches long. Thus, it would not have been used until hand to hand combat was necessary. With the shield held in the left hand, soldiers would draw their sword with their right. When the enemy drew close enough, he would lead with his shield and thrust with his sword.
Although it is not certain who wrote the book of Hebrews, the 4th chapter in that book gives a glimpse into what the apostle Paul might have been thinking when he instructed his audience to take up the sword of the Spirit. Hebrews 4:12 says, “Indeed, the word of God is living and active and sharper than any two-edged sword, piercing until it divides soul from spirit, joints from marrow; it is able to judge the thoughts and intentions of the heart” (NRSVUE).
In the 1st century, a soldier’s sword was his best and most effective weapon at close range. If he were to lose it, he would nearly be defenseless. The sword of the Spirit is a Christian’s soldier’s greatest weapon. Without the Word of God we are defenseless; the armor means very little without the Word of God.
CONCLUSION
SUMMATION
“Finally, be strong in the Lord and in the strength of his power” (Eph. 6:10). These are the apostle Paul’s words to the believers in ancient Ephesus and surrounding regions. They are also an admonition to the believers in the 21st century. “For our struggle is not against blood and flesh but against the rulers, against the authorities, against the cosmic powers of this present darkness, against the spiritual forces of evil in the heavenly places” (v. 12 NRSVUE). As a pastor, the apostle Paul used what he new to help his audience understand how to be ready for the spiritual battle–common Roman armor. If we take a closer look at this armor, we, too can “take up the whole armor of God” (v. 13) and stand firm, knowing that our divine protector has already won the battle..
In the apocryphal book, Wisdom, there is a passage that speaks of this divine protector. “The Lord will take his zeal as his whole armor and will arm all creation to repel his enemies; he will put on righteousness as a breastplate and wear impartial justice as a helmet; he will take holiness as an invincible shield and sharpen stern wrath for a sword, and the world will join him to fight against the senseless”(Wisdom 5:17-20 NRSVUE).
APPLICATION
“And I heard a loud voice saying in heaven, Now is come salvation, and strength, and the kingdom of our God, and the power of his Christ: for the accuser of our brethren is cast down, which accused them before our God day and night. And they overcame him by the blood of the Lamb, and by the word of their testimony; and they loved not their lives unto the death” (Revelation 12:10-11 KJV).
How are we to overcome evil with good? How are we to win the spiritual battle? “They are to do so by embracing and exhibiting truth, righteousness, peace, and faith and by leaning into and living out salvation and God’s Word” (Longenecker p. 257).
It’s time for battle. Let us tighten that belt of truth around us to keep a clear path before us. Let us put on that breastplate of righteousness, that impenetrable shirt that keeps our vital organs safe. Let us not forget to tie on our sandals, those firm foundations that keep our feet out of the muck as we spread the gospel of peace. Let us take up the shield of faith which keeps us from feeling the fire of the enemy’s arrows. Now let us strap on that helmet of salvation, knowing who we are and whose we are. Finally, let us take our swords in hand, that sharp blade of the Word of God that dicerns the intensions of the heart and pierces even the very marrow of our bones. With our spirits protected and our safety sustained, let us go forth in the Spirit of our Divine Protector.
WORKS CITED
Bible Hub https://biblehub.com
Budha, Victor L. “Intercultural Criticism of Spiritual Warfare (Ephesians 6:10–20).” Hervormde
Teologiese Studies 78.3 (2022)ProQuest. Web. 15 Jan. 2025.
Coogan, Michael, The New Oxford Annotated Bible with Apocrypha: New Revised Standard
Version An Ecumenical Study Bible. Kindle ed. Oxford University Press, 2018
Gilliam, J. F. Milites Caligati, Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological
Association, vol. 77, 1946, JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/283455. Accessed 1 Feb. 2025.
Goldsworhty, Adrian, The Complete Roman Army, Thames & Hudson, 2003
Edition, 2021
Longenecker, Bruce W. and Still, Todd D., Thinking Through Paul: A Survey of His Life, Letters
and Theology, Zondervan, 2014
Merriam-Webster, Caligae, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/caliga
National Council of the Churches of Christ, Holy Bible, New Revised Standard Version Updated
Sabin, Philip; van Wees, Hans; Whitby, Michael, The Cambridge History of Greek and Roman Warfare. Vol. 1. Cambridge University Press, 2007
Shannon Wells 